The Yellow Wallpaper Essay

Trapped and Unreliable The two short stories â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† Charlotte Perkins Gilman and â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† Edgar Allan Poe are stories that appear to be totally different from each other, but are actually very similar; one of those similarities is the theme of entrapment the stories show entrapment on both a physical and a mental level. We see in these two stories individuals that are not only trapped physically but trapped mentally within their own minds not able to free themselves from the chains that are holding them; these circumstances show us that both of the main characters in these stories are unreliable. The theme of entrapment that is shared by both of these stories really sets the stage for both of them it defines the plot and really is the center of both of these stories. â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper†, concentrates on the narrator’s deep depression and her struggle to get better. The narrator spends her summer vacation confined in a nursery on the top floor of a mansion. This is in an attempt to cure her illness by her husband John, who is a doctor. The room has barred windows on all sides and yellow wallpaper with â€Å"sprawling flamboyant patterns† (Gilman 766). The narrator at first is in disgust with the wallpaper and thinks it is an artistic sin. Then with nothing to do, and her imagination running free, she turns her imagination onto the wallpaper. She uses the wallpaper as a form of entertainment and tries to figure out the pattern. The central symbol of the short story is the wallpaper. The meaning behind the wallpaper represents the narrator’s entrapment and her struggle with depression. Armstrong 2 The yellow wallpaper acts like a mental entrapment for the main character. At the end of the story, the main character rips down the yellow wallpaper to release the woman behind the paper. This was symbolic because even though she saw a woman, this woman was her. When the narrator was angry she put that onto the wallpaper, so that is why she ripped the wallpaper down. She was trapped behind the pattern and she couldn’t move from it. This is the point where her sickness has gotten to the worst extent. The wallpaper led her to create her own madness. The main character says in the story, â€Å"There are things in the wallpaper that nobody knows about but me, or ever will. (Gilman 774). Not even John knew what was really going on because he was always working and never took his wife’s thoughts too seriously. The yellow wallpaper also acts as physical entrapment to the main character. The wallpaper blocks her into that small room. She feels like she cannot get better in that room. In a sense she can’t get better in that room because of the things preventing her from resting. Her eyes are constantly on the yellow wallpaper; her mind also feels she cannot step away from the wallpaper. In â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado†, The story begins with Montresor dictating the events of 50 years prior to an undisclosed individual. Montresor feels as though the antagonist, Fortunato, has wronged him on numerous occasions. Although these injuries are not stated, Montresor is adamant that vengeance is necessary. Montresor states: â€Å"I must not only punish, but punish with impunity. † (Poe 125) This quote shows that not only does Montresor feel strongly about the actions that must be taken, but also demonstrates the attitude that these actions are warranted. Montresor, like any other man, is consumed by the desire to avenge his foe. Armstrong 3 There is obvious differences between these two stories, In â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† there is physical and mental conditions that center around the plot of the story, we see the narrator suffering from paranoia, and other mental conditions she states â€Å"So I take phosphates or phosphites-whichever it is, and tonics and journeys, and air, and exercise, and am absolutely forbidden to work until I am well again. † (Gilman 766), this clearly demonstrates a mental condition. But in contrast I think in the â€Å"Cask of Amontillado† I believe the mental condition of Montresor is created by the abuse that he has received in the past years from Fortunato. In terms of unreliable narrators, the two stories are similar. In â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado,† the narrator, Montresor, seems to be confessing to the murder of Fortunato, possibly on his death bed, but the reader is never really sure what is real and what has been fabricated by Montresor over the 50 years since the crime happened. In â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper,† the narrator is also unreliable. We get snippets of her story from a journal she has been keeping that chronicles her descent into madness at her confinement in an upstairs bedroom at a house she and her husband are renting for a few months. Throughout her narration, the reader becomes aware of several things that the narrator is not aware of, like her descent into madness. Since she is losing her grip on reality, we too much question her take on the events in the story like one might question Montresor's interpretation of the events in â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado. In conclusion, I would like to point out that in either case, the mind is a very powerful force that is capable of driving people in so many different directions, we see the people in these two stories demonstrating very odd behavior for similar reasons, but then again they are totally different in fact. We see Montresor actually commit murder And in the end of â€Å"The yellow wallpaper† we see the narrator actually go insane.

Sport Btec Fittness Cards

Muscle exercised Pectorals, triceps, biceps and deltoids. These muscles are located in your shoulders, arms and thorax. Method Lie down on the bench, make sure your comfortable as you do not want to be adjusting during reps. Grip barbell roughly 8 inches apart, again make sure your grip is secure and comfortable. Lower the bar slowly and smoothly directly over your chest and in the same rhythm up to the top again. Try to remain smooth in your transaction from the down to the up as if you are doing it in a jerking action you my cause injury.Your back should remain in contact with the bench at all times and your arms should not lock. Notes Your biceps and pectorals are agonist when your on the way down with bar and on the way up they are antagonist. your biceps are synergist with your triceps because when your biceps are agonist your triceps are antagonist and vice versa. Deltoids are agonist when the bar is on the way up and antagonist when the bar is on the way down. Muscle exercised Rectus abdominis Method Standard sit ups consist of lying flat on your back with your legs bent up at the knees in a triangle shape.You then bring your chest up too your knees, this should be done with your arms across you chest because if they are behind your head it is easy to pull your head up and strain your neck. Obviously you then reverse the action going back down trying to keep your back slightly of the ground each time as to feel the full effects of each sit up. Notes The rectus abdominis is agonist on the way up in the standard sit up and is antagonist on the way back down. This means that on the way up it shortens to allow the movement to take place and then on the way down the muscle will relax again.The best example of agonist and antagonist movements is in a twist sit up. This is because when your internal oblique is agonist your external oblique is antagonist and vice versa. Muscles exercised Rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, vastus intermedius, semi membranosus, semitendinosus and biceps femoris Method In a squat you start by putting the maximum or close to the maximum weight you can lift on a barbell. You should then place the barbell across your shoulders you will then lower yourself to a close to sitting position. During this the torso must be kept straight as not to put any strain on your back.You then slowly rise back up to the starting position and repeat. Notes The quadriceps are agonist when on your dip and on the extension back up they are antagonist. Simultaneously to this your semimembranosus, semitendinosus and biceps femoris otherwise known as your hamstrings are doing the opposite. The muscles of your abdomen are synergists that work together to allow the agonist to operate more effectively. Muscles exercised Gastrocnemius, soleus and tibialis anterior Method Nautilus workout machines target all the muscle groups in the leg. The machine best suited for these muscles is the nautilus calf machine. et up the machine by putting the pin in the stack at the weight most appropriate for you. Then step up on to the calf raise platform and put your shoulders under the pads making sure the middle of each foot rests on the platform. You then proceed to push up so you are on your tip toes, slowly lower your feet back down to finish repartition. Notes When going up on to your tip toes your soleus and tibialis anterior are the muscles that are agonist and your gastrocnemius is antagonist. When lowering back down to flat footed the roles of the agonists and antagonists are reversed.

Watchman. A spiritual discipline that guides christians lives Essay

Watchman. A spiritual discipline that guides christians lives - Essay Example Today, most believers get frustrated as they try to seek the spiritual path experience. They end up not getting the most appropriate path in this case. This leads them into darkness, lingering in the crossroads throughout the year There is therefore need for clear guidance for the believers to take the right path. According to Watchman (1998), all those who go out to seek God with a very honest heart move step to step in the right path. Every sinner moves from his or her position to a step by step pace towards the correct spiritual life peak. There are several questions regarding spiritual life, which the believers would like to comprehend despite the fact that the answers are not given openly. Some hard matters including hearing of the voice of God as well as comprehending his will are some issues that are not clearly given to every Christian.The major issues concerning Christian life include: salvation, sanctification, denying the self, regeneration, baptism of the spirit, the holy spirit filling and the power, prayer, fellowship, bible study identification, supernatural experience, miracles, the discernment of true and false speaking, the emotion, the soulish life, speaking in tongues, the conscience, Gods revelation, spiritual work, Satan's war fare and the renewal of the mind.According to Watchman (1998) tying to concentrate on God almost all the time would not be a possible activity. But a closer link with God can be achieved by taking some time every day to read the bible, talk to God and hence think about Him. In this approach God would be communicating back in a powerful wave which makes the Christians to have a feeling of God's love and other times challenged by the approach they are supposed to open up scriptures. In this way the Christians would be investing substantial time into their relationship with God thus receives back a reciprocating relationship of love with Him. Growing deeply in spiritual world demands setting aside quiet times with God t hat has no interruptions as well as distractions hence tuning their ears to hear the God's voice. Watchman (1998) indicates that the spiritual conditions of Christians are usually varying as their degree of spiritual life. Every believer's spiritual experience has some mystery. In order to be led by the lord into a deeper spiritual life, the Christian believer has to receive a taste of the outline of that level of spiritual life prior to really getting into it. On getting a taste of a particular level of spirituality, most believers believe that they have gotten into that level. But in the actual sense, this is just but the beginning of the work of the lord leading them into such matters. This implies that a believer getting a taste of a particular level does not necessarily mean fully entering into that level. Watchman (1998) further asserts that seeing God's light means getting the knowledge of ourselves and subsequently not losing our broadness in the Lord otherwise one will be in their own thoughts as well as feelings. Involving in such self-feelings would hinder one from gaining one's self in the Lord. Spiritual self-analysis and self-consciousness are usually harmful to the believers' spiritual life. Thus knowing the necessary spiritual guidance calls for unrelenting understanding of the right path and deep teachings by the lord would help one have a better personal relationship with God. It is quite important to understand as well as remember God's way of redemption. His ultimate goal is to have all believers delivered via a new life that offers believers the time of regeneration from our natural things (nature), supernatural things and sin; all these three comprises the

Basic Attributes of Organizations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Basic Attributes of Organizations - Essay Example Being headquartered in the United States which is recognized as one of the wealthiest nations in the world, its operation is focused overseas especially on the developing nations in Asia and Africa. However, in the case of the relief after the hurricane Katrina, it obviously bypassed these beneficiaries by collecting and channeling fund domestically. According to LWR's parish project associate Brenda Meier, "Historically, Lutheran World Relief has focused on emergency response overseas, but, given the unprecedented nature of Hurricane Katrina, we feel that it is appropriate to make a rare exception and distribute the items domestically" (Lutheran World Relief 3). As stated above, LWR is headquartered in the Northern America with global operations divided into three geographical regions namely Africa, Asia and Middle East, and Latin America (Lutheran World Relief 1).

Land Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Land Law - Essay Example This study looks into the law of land as a branch of law that regulates dealings related to land. Land is defined as a physical portion of the earth’s surface and resources that are found above and bellow the surface. The definition of land also extends to rights that are associated with land. This document covers the facts of the case: connor, a landowner decided to sell off part of his land in order to ease his financial strains. He intended to use the income for developing the remaining parts of his land. He sold his farmhouse to Jane on terms that the firm house shall be used as a residential facility for a single family. Similarly, he sold part of the farm to Bullhorn Company on terms that any subsequent owner of the sold part shall develop and maintain a fence, the sold portion shall not be used for more than twelve dwelling houses, and that the property shall strictly be used for residential purposes. Bullhorn developed twelve independent residential units and sold then to different parties on the terms that the owners shall strictly use the property for residential purposes and shall pay a vendor some maintenance fees for upkeep of the roadway. Jane also sold her property to Oscar who has since established a business enterprise within the property. Alex, one of the buyers from Bullhorn has also been using his house as a bail hostel, a commercial initiative. As a result, other house owners have expressed their dissatisfaction and have refused to maintain their fences as well as payments for road upkeep. Legal issues Covenants Covenants are obligations that are derived from agreements between two landowners. While one party incurs obligations, the other party consequently derives a benefit to the covenant. The common objectives for making covenants include restrictions to the use of the pieces of land or prescription of outline to a development plan. A covenant may for instance control the manner in which a person can use his or her piece of land o r even the status of the landowner. Though the general rule imposes rights and liabilities on the original parties to a covenant, th

No Tolerance Disciplinary Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

No Tolerance Disciplinary Policy - Essay Example The No Tolerance Disciplinary Policies are usually a last resort to resolve the issue and show the degree of importance the organization places on the specific issues discussed in them. Organizations must take strict action against the offenders so that others are discouraged from doing such an act again. The offenders should be given a chance to defend themselves but if they are unable to provide proper justification for their actions then they would bear the punishment placed on them by the administration (Holloway, 2007). Actions which would result in the No Tolerance Disciplinary Action to be taken upon them could be ranked as: 1) Offences to the organization; 2) Offences to employees. Offences to the organization includes cheating on work, stealing from the organization, not following the rules and regulations of the organization and other similar actions which could in any way damage the organization's standing or cause disrepute to the organization's name would be dealt with harshly and swiftly. Offences to other employees involve using foul language in the office place, committing sexual harassment, using racial terms or comments against fellow employees.

Stonefish Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Stonefish - Research Paper Example The stonefish belongs to the class Osteichthyes and the order Scorpainiformes under the Synanceiidae. There are different species in this genus totaling 28 and two of them are the most venomous fish known to man. The Synanceia horrida being the deadliest and the other, the Synanceia verucossa is also known for the harm it could bring. It can grow up to 40 centimeters in length and feeds mostly on fish and crustaceans. They mainly wait for food to come to them and almost never sting to catch prey. This means that their venom is for purposes of self-defense rather than for hunting food. A clear study of its reproduction habit and life span is yet to be explored while its birthing pattern is believed to be through planktonic eggs. Their habitat consists of the shallow sandy waters and reefs where they are often mistaken as rocks. Aesthetically, this fish has a wide head relatively not proportioned to its small tail but where there should be scale, a stonefish has warts and slime coverin g its body (Burton and Burton 2547-2548). Stonefish can be found mostly in the indo-pacific region, that is the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, and known to be common in these waters. Among them, the Great Barrier Reef in Australia is well-known as home for a number of different species of stonefish. They are usually in the colors of brown and green with different colored patches to camouflage in their surroundings. Their venom is released through the spines on their back which makes them deadly in rare cases. The trouble lies in the fact that they are difficult to see and most times it is only after a person has already had an unpleasant encounter with these creatures that they realize they are even there (Antill 4-5). Effects of envenomation differ significantly among reports which range from virtually nonexistent to deadly in a few rare occasions. The process starts with the breaking or wounding of the skin which makes it possible for the poison to be injected through it (Burton and Burton 2547). The experiences of hu mans with this animal are usually unpleasant which tends to create an atmosphere of legends around them and since most notable encounters are associated with pain, they have been regarded as nuisances and a cause for concern. â€Å"It is not widely appreciated that stonefish are plentiful in the sea, but because of their superb camouflage they are not commonly sighted†¦ Similarly, as records of stings show, stonefish stings are themselves not rare† (Williamson, Fenner, Burnett and Rifkin 374). The fact that they look just like stones or algae that form part of their most immediate surroundings make them invisible to the indiscriminate eyes. In the event that envenomation occurs, the best first aid treatment advised is to immerse the affected are in hot water to relieve of the pain. Preferably, anti-venom must be sought immediately in the nearest local medical facility upon confirmation that a person has been poisoned by a stonefish. Handling a stonefish must be with grea t care. It should not be carried by hand and a stick would come in handy if this occurs. Authorities even suggest that it will be best to just throw the fish back in the water and let it swim away. If one finds it necessary to handle it, the best way is to hold it by the tail which could most likely alarm it and thus raise its spines in defense (ibid 381). The prudent attitude is to steer away from them to avoid envenomation and logically to refrain from picking up or going near what may seem to be just an ordinary rock when in

Cell phones and brain cancer Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Cell phones and brain cancer - Research Paper Example That is nearly one in two people in the globe have a cell phone attached to their identity. This statistic makes it clear that cell phones have become inevitable to our lives. A link has been identified between some kinds of electromagnetic radiation and some cancers. These forms of electromagnetic radiation include â€Å"ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays. They are dangerous because they may break covalent chemical bonds in your body. Breakage of certain covalent bonds in key molecules leads to an increased cancer risk.† (Leikind) It is claimed that Radio Frequency (RF) waves employed by cell phones are not in the same grouping as these harmful radiations. RF is a type of electromagnetic radiation that falls between â€Å"FM radio waves and those used in microwave ovens, satellite stations, and radar†. (Leikind) Those who defend the safety of cell phones point out that the device does not emit ionizing radiation, which has the potential to create chemical changes to molecules in the human body. In other words, in the absence of ionizing radiation, the human DNA will not be damaged by cell phone usage. It is argued that cell phones â€Å"emit nonionizing radiation, which has lower energy and a longer wavelength than ionizing radiation. Nonionizing radiation is not strong enough to change an atoms structure, but it can heat tissue. The Federal Communication Commission (FCC) places a limit on the amount of RF energy that can be absorbed from a cell phone into the users local tissues--the specific absorption rate (SAR)--at 1.6 watts per kilogram (W/kg).† (Liberatore 70) Hence, those cell phone devices that abide by FCC regulation on heat limit should be safe for usage. This is backed by recent research evidence as well, which suggest that short-term exposure to cell phones might cause no harm whatsoever. But in terms of long-term usage, results from a review of 18 studies on cell phone use of

Risk managment and insurance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Risk managment and insurance - Essay Example Lencsis (1997) argues that the promotion of insurance solvency is the most vital goal of insurance regulation. It is of great importance to the regulators since it makes the outcome of insurance transactions certain and predictable. This is because, predictable results are the essence of insurance. As a result, the maintenance and promotion of the solvency of the insurer are at the regulators heart. The other explanation in this respect is that individuals insured are not capable of protecting themselves in respect of insurance transactions. This is due to the fact that insurance is more than a contingent promise that is to be provided in the future. As such, the promise is worth a company standing before it. Typically, a consumer cannot monitor or evaluate the solvency of an insurance company. Furthermore, insurance accounting and actuarial procedures are difficult and complicated, thus requiring a regulator to monitor the solvency of the insurance companies on behalf of the public (Lencsis, 1997). The other importance in respect of solvency regulation is that it ensures that the public is protected in case the insurance company becomes insolvent. Lencsis (1997) notes that the state of insolvency of an insurance company may cause a lot of tribulations and massive losses to the insured entities. Insurance solvency regulation is also of importance to the regulator especially with regard to life insurance, and to some extent property insurance, since they are responsible for sizable amounts of insured savings. Therefore, since the insurers’ operations parallel fiduciary operations, solvency regulation must be regulated for public interest (Lencsis, 1997). The solvency of an insurance company is very important to the regulators as it protects the insured from unscrupulous dealers and insurance companies that may become

English Language Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

English Language - Essay Example When we talk about present day society, we are actually focussing the significance of the domains of English language in a cultural context, where global popular culture in the name of 'globalisation' is challenging the essential mythologies of English language (Mair, 2003, p. 19). The way English language is misused in the cultural context does not necessarily refer to culture-specific aspects, although it is obvious that many of the concepts in this category are alien to many Third World cultures and the corresponding texts are imported from the First World (Greenbaum, 1996, p. 188). English as a world language serves all the world's citizens irrespective of caste, culture or creed and its postulated universality makes it equally relevant everywhere, as though it can function independently of contemporary power balances, both global and local (Mair, 2003, p. 20). Although globalisation in the international spread of English language may be regrettable and undesirable but we cannot ignore that global English today has become an agent of reform and fairness. Despite a 'globalised language', the pressures of a rights-oriented culture may one day enable English to become the vehicle for articulation while maintaining certain worldwide standards of protection. English language from economic perspective has been able to bridge the gap between various cultures and economies; therefore it has served as an exchange-facilitating institution, where 'exchange' is not the only economic function English language has performed (Reksulak et al, 2004). English language development has been shaped by revealing the constellation of economic and other forces. However, the impact technology upholds in the innovation, trade, and economic growth on the English-speaking world is evident in the rising share of nouns in new words added during the past two or three centuries which make up 58% of the words originating in the 19th century and more than 70% of the words originating in the 20th (Reksulak et al, 2004). There is no doubt that English language blames grand scale globalisation factor and put all the enthusiasm and vitriol on its shoulders, but it is this language that is responsible for the growth in regional interactions from trade to travel. These interactions have long engaged in promoting the spread of English language among other regional languages (Fishman, 2000, p. 13). The significance of English language lies in the notion that it is present in societies where local languages are disappearing, in cultures where local languages are not considered, English is understood and spoken (Moritoshi, Nov 2001). References Bryson Bill, (1990) The mother tongue: English and how it got that way. New York: HarperCollins. Fishman A. Joshua, (Spring 2000) "English: The Killer Language OR A PASSING PHASE" In: Whole Earth. Greenbaum Sidney, (1996) Comparing English Worldwide: The International Corpus of English: Clarendon Press: Oxford. Mair Christian, (2003) The Politics of English as a World Language: New Horizons in Postcolonial Cultural Studies: Rodopi: Amsterdam. Moritoshi Paul, Nov 2001,Perspectives on the Role of English as an International Language, Accessed from Reksulak Michael, William F. Shughart Ii & Tollison D. Robert, (2004) "Economics and English: Language Growth in Economic Perspective" In: Southern Economic

European History Essay Example for Free

European History Essay When questioned in regards to the Enlightenment, an individual may give the general description that it was a time period ranging from the mid seventeenth to late eighteenth century that stressed the cultivation of philosophical, intellectual and cultural movements. However, they may not be aware of specific implications it had on former central powers such as the church. Although the scientific revolution was a stepping stone to the destabilization of the church, it was the enlightenment that ultimately removed the church from the central control of cultural and intellectual life. The scientific revolution is a time period in history roughly from 1500 to 1700 that is known as one where advances in European mathematical, political and scientific thought occurred. A â€Å"founding father† of the scientific revolution was a polish scientist by the name of Nicholas Copernicus, whose conclusion that it was the sun, not the earth that lies at the center of the solar system, was a direct contradiction to the church, which strongly believed the vice-versa or the Geo-Centric theory. (Merriman,290) It was this initiating step that led other scientists to further question and test traditional church beliefs. An example of this is Galileo Galilee and his creation of a telescope that would confirm the geocentric theory, although for which he was decreed a heretic and put under house arrest. (Merriman 296) In the â€Å"Crime of Galileo: Indictment and Abjuration of 1633† we can directly see Galilee’s theories being refuted by the church in the following quote: â€Å"The proposition that the sun is in the center of the world and immovable from its place is absurd, philosophically false, and formally heretical; because it is expressly contrary to Holy Scriptures†¦ The proposition that the earth is not the center of the world, nor immovable, but that it moves, and also with a diurnal action, is also absurd, philosophically false, and, theologically considered, at least erroneous in faith†¦.Therefore: We pronounce, judge, and declare, that you, the said Galileo . . . have rendered yourself vehemently suspected by this Holy Office of heresy.† (2) Here we can see the church counter-arguing Galilees theory by stating that it contradicts the Holy Scriptures, the biblical text that virtually controlled how individuals interpreted the world. Through Galileo’s thought’s individual’s became encouraged to see the world through measurable means such as experiments and evidence, as oppose to biblical texts that told otherwise. It was only after scientific discoveries such as the one above that philosophers started questioning the natural world. It was discoveries such as the one above that influenced great thinkers such as Isaac Newton, whose discoveries altered not only scientific thought but views about religion for decades to come. (Merriman,300) A Prussian philosopher by the name of Immanuel Kant, who lived from the mid seventeen hundreds to the early eighteen hundreds, was influenced by these ideas of empiricism and reason. In his 1784 publication â€Å"What is Enlightenment† Immanuel Kant writes: †Å"Sapere aude! (Dare to know) Have courage to use your own reason. If I have a book which understands for me, a pastor who has a conscience for me†¦I need not trouble myself. I need not think, if I can only pay others will easily undertake the irksome work for me.† (1-2) This can be interpreted that Kant is advising individuals to use their own sense of logic and to understand the natural world. Here, we can see that traditional church ideas are being pushed away for ones of a logical nature, hence a church that is surely losing its grip on the people of Europe. This idea of tradition church ideas being replaced can be further seen in Kant’s writing when he states: â€Å"The escape of men from their self-incurred tutelage chiefly in matters of religion because our rulers have no interest in playing guardian with respect to the arts and sciences and also because religious incompetence is not only the most harmful but also the most degrading of all.† (12) The interpretation that can be derived from this is that Kant believes that church officials have no concern for the development of man and wish for them to remain uneducated about the world in which they reside. Moreover, the argument can be made is that because the church’s negligence in accepting evolving scientific theories, people came to understand that the need to stray from church beliefs in order to grasp their own sense of understanding was unmistakable, therefore ultimately decreasing the churches once high standing in the lives of early Europeans. The scientific revolution, a corner stone for mankind, whose implications are being felt to this very day, was in addition responsible for the development of a time period known as the enlightenment. Characterized as a movement of philosophical, cultural, and intellectual gains, in addition the enlightenment was responsible for the decentralization of church power in Europe during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Scientist such as Nicholas Copernicus, Galileo Galilee, and Isaac Newton influenced individuals through their theories which stressed using empirical evidence and reasoning to define the world they dwell in. It was through these ideas that Europeans came to understand the Church’s denial to accept reason and empiricism, decentralizing the churches one’s great grasp over society. Works-Cited Kant, Immanuel. â€Å"What is Enlightenment?† Internet Modern History Sourcebook. 15 November 2012. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/kant-whatis.html. Merriman, John. A history of Modern Europe: From the Renaissance to the age of Napoleon. 3rd ed. Vol. 1. London: W.W.Norton and Company Inc., 2010. N. pag. Print. The Crime of Galileo: Indictment and Abjuration of 1633. . Web. 15 Nov. 2012. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1630galileo.asp.

North America Essay Example for Free

North America Essay Canada is located in the northern side of North America and it borders Arctic Ocean and North Pacific Ocean. According to the CIA World Fact Book, Canada had an estimated population growth of approximately 33,212,696 as at July 2008. The highest population in terms of age structure was between 16-64 years with males recording a higher margin by 246,716. The population growth rate was estimated to be 0. 83% while the birth rate and death rates were 10. 29/1000 population and 7. 61/1000 population respectively. The ethnic groups living in Canada include those from the British Isles who form about 28% of the total population. Those with a French origin constitute a tune of 23% of the total population, 15% is made of American Indians, 6% are Arabs while approximately 26% are from a mixture of races or ethnic backgrounds. (CIA, 2008). Canada’s capital city is Ottawa and the government is a constitutional monarchy. One of the most distinguishing features in Canada is its multicultural diversity as well as an immigration policy that is very friendly to immigrants especially those with skills that can allow them fit well in labor market. This paper will focus on Canada’s multicultural diversity, immigration policy and her economy. In analyzing an economy, one addresses issues or features like the level of consumer spending, the exchange rate, the GDP, the GDP per capita, the GNP, the national debt, interest rates, level of inflation as well as the balance of payment. Sectors of an economy for instance primary like in agriculture, secondary like the manufacturing industries or even tertiary or the service sectors are also assessed. Canada’s economy according to the CIA is a market economy whose industrial development has overtime replaced the rural agrarian economy. Trade plays a very significant role in as far as Canada’s economy is concerned. CIA estimates that it contributes 1/3 of the total GDP. Canada is endowed with natural resources especially oil and gas as well as electrical power which places it at a better edge in terms of potential economic advancement. 2007 estimates have it that the GDP in terms of the purchasing power parity was $1. 271 trillion but on using the official exchange rates the figure rose to $1. 432 trillion. The real GDP growth rate was estimated to be 2. 7% while the per capita income was at $38000 in the same year. The service industry was the sector that contributed the highest in as far as GDP was concerned. (CIA, 2008). Agriculture contributed the least at 2. 1%. Other important economic indicators like unemployment rate stood at 6% as at 2007. The US was the greatest export partner as at 2007 and it stood at 79. 3%. Canada’s exchange rate was at 1. 0724 in 2007 in terms of Canadian dollars per the US dollar. 2007 statistics also had it that Canada’s external debt was $758. 6 billion; the public debt was 64. 2% of the country’s GDP while the current account balance stood at $12. 67 billion. (CIA, 2008). Factors that trigger immigration include globalization of markets, technological advancement especially in the communication sectors, affordable transport, safer and stable environments in terms of political, social as well as economic conditions. Canada embraces the talents and expertise that the immigrants bring to her which stirs her economic growth and advancement. The improved standards of living can be attributed to immigration. (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2008). Immigrants also place Canada at a better edge socially as her intervention is sought when addressing issues related to the protection of the disadvantaged for instance the refugees. (Dolin B and Young M, 2004) History has it that the immigrant friendly policies were encouraged by the government officials with the aim of increasing the countries population and consequently standing a better position economic wise. (Westhues A, 2006). The reduced population growth could be blamed on the decline in women’s fertility rates as they joined the labor force. Another reason behind the immigration policies was that with the increased standards of living, the life expectancy rates had risen sharply and the aged, a dependent population was increasing. The aged increases or rather raise a country’s dependency ratio and they are not economically productive. Immigrants are encouraged to provide a skilled work force to boost the economic growth. Others were encouraged and allowed to live in Canada due to family reunions. Unlike the US which applies harsh policies on immigrants within its jurisdiction Canada embraces or rather welcomes immigrants and statistics have it that to a tune of 13. 4 immigrants have been welcomed in a span of a decade. In 2001, it was estimated that approximately 18. 4% of the total population were not born in Canada. (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2008). The immigrants only work to enrich culture in Canada. It is estimated that Canada attracts a tune of 200 000 immigrants annually from across the globe. All institutions in Canada for instance the legal institutions are expected to treat all the citizens equally. According to the Ministry of Public Works and Government services, Canada treats all her citizens equally. It embraces multiculturalism. This way her citizens are proud of their origin without fear or shame as no race or ethnic group is considered as being superior to the other. Canadians are encouraged to live in harmony with each other regardless their racial background or origin. This arrangement allows all Canadians to have an equal stand in as far as the running of social, political as well as economic issues is concerned. The Canadian multiculturalism history dates back to the year 1971 when the multiculturalism act was officiated. (Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 2007). Since then, Canada has witnessed the positive effects like reduced conflicts or violence, reduced discrimination while encouraging harmony and unity among her citizens. Since assimilation is not a problem for most immigrants, it enables them to easily fit in Canada while retaining or rather maintaining their identities. An all inclusive and accommodative approach would boost a country’s democracy and consequently pave way for development in all aspects. Diversity is embraced with the mentality that it will boost a better Canada both socially as well as economically. It is argued that diversity precipitates innovation, teamwork and creativity which are important factors to consider for growth to be realized. However Canada is still faced by some challenges that affect its economic growth and development. The issue of inequality is too significant to be ignored. The Aboriginal people continue to lag behind in as far as health, poverty, education, unemployment as well as suicide rates are concerned. (Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 2007). The immigration policy in Canada faces much criticism from those who argue that it leads to the increased taxes on the incumbent citizen’s side. Statistics have it that recent immigrants will generally register lower wages as opposed to other citizens. This precipitates the need to put them on welfare schemes. The impact of immigrants on the local citizen’s wages is significant and cannot be ignored. Critics propose a reform in the selection of immigrants who are to live in Canada so that the burden in form of taxes is done away with. In his article ‘Immigration and the Welfare State in Canada: Growing Conflicts, Constructive Solutions’ Herbert Grubel pointed out that in 2000 the government spent a tune of $1. 4 billion while the figure rose to approximately $18. 3 billion in 2003 in form of immigrants welfare. A reform can ensure that immigrants are given temporary visas until they access the jobs they are skilled in instead of first gaining citizenship before they can secure jobs. Impose high taxes on incumbent citizens would reduce their disposable incomes and consequently reducing their purchasing power. Most refuges who make Canada their home or shelter are without the skills to make them competent in the job market and thus the need for government intervention in form of welfare. (Grubel H, 2005). In her article’ The potential impacts of immigration on productivity in Canada’ Alice Nakamura noted that the new immigrants are a potential threat to the country’s productivity levels. These fears arose due to the fact that newer immigrants registered reduced wages probably as an indication that they were less attractive to their employees. This could be blamed on the quality of their work. (Nakamura A, 2003). Concerns raised here were that by lowering the productivity levels the standards of living were also likely to dwindle. This paper has by and large explained the economic characteristics of Canada and it suffices to say that she has been doing well like other developed countries. The high standards of living are a clear indication of a successful economy. However the issues of inequalities need to be addressed such that no race lags behind in terms of economic welfare as well as the accessibility of social amenities. It is clear that the multiculturalism in Canada ensures freedom in participation of various sectors like in politics. The immigration policy is also to the country’s advantage but it is vital that effective measures are carried out such that the incumbent citizens are not taxed heavily to finance immigrant’s welfare. References: Alice Nakamura. 2003. The potential impacts of immigration on productivity in Canada. Anne Westhues. 2006. Canadian Social Policy: Issues and Perspectives. Wilfrid Laurier University Press, Benjamin Dolin and Margaret Young. 2004. Canada’s immigration program. Retrieved on 23rd October 2008 from http://www. parl. gc. ca/information/library/PRBpubs/bp190-e. htm CIA. 2008. The world Fact Book. Canada. Retrieved on 23rd October 2008 from https://www. cia. gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca. html Citizenship and Immigration Canada. 2008. Annual Report to Parliament on Immigration, 2005. Canadian Immigration: Building Canada’s Future. A Vision for Building Canada’s Future. Retrieved on 23rd October 2008 from http://www. cic. gc. ca/English/resources/publications/annual-report2005/section1. asp

Exercise Treatments for PD Symptoms

Exercise Treatments for PD Symptoms The Exercise Rx Besides drugs and surgery, researchers are looking into using exercise as an intervention therapy to tame the symptoms of PD. In 2003, Dr. Jay L. Alberts, a PD researcher and accomplished cyclist, entered the seven-day RAGBRAI bicycle ride across Iowa. He rode on a tandem bike for two days with Cathy Frazier, a 40-year-old woman with PD. He discovered that Cathys handwriting was beautiful. Prior to the ride, her handwriting displayed classical micrographia, a cardinal sign of PD. Each year for the next four years, when he did the RAGBRAI tandem bike ride with parkinsonian stokers, he noticed similar phenomena. His stokers parkinsonian symptoms disappeared. As he went through scientific literatures, Alberts discovered that there was a lot of research on animals that reported similar results. Typically, in these studies, one group of animals is put on a motorized treadmill that forces the creature to run faster than it wants. A sedentary group serves as a control. Then, after a few weeks, both groups are given a neurotoxin such asÂÂ   MPTP. The sedentary group suffers immediate damage to the substantia nigra and develops parkinsonism; the exercise group partially resists the toxin. But research on humans had not found comparable benefits. Alberts thought it was because the human experiments test voluntary exercise while the rates are doing forced exercise. The rats are forced to run at a faster rate. The same thing is going on with the tandem bikes where the stokers are pedaling faster than they were pedaling on their own. To test the theory, Alberts carried out a pilot trial that took ten PD patients and randomly assigned them to one of two groups: a treatment group receiving forced exercise and a control group voluntarily exercising. The forced-exercise group was given three 60-minute workouts for eight weeks in which a trainer pedaled at 80 to 90 revolutions per minute. The control group did three 60-minute session each week on a bike by themselves. Each group was evaluated before and after the experiment using the Unified Parkinsons Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS). After eight weeks, the forced-exercise groups symptoms had improved reducing their average UPDRS part 3 score by about one-third. Thats almost as large an effect as the one brought about by levodopa. The control group saw no benefit. Two weeks later, these gains were still there in the tandem group. But four weeks after treatment, the forced-exercise group was back where theyd started. So force-exercise is like levodopa, the benefit will stop if you stop taking it. Albertss concept of forced exercise is just one of many options out there. Other options such as tai chi, kickboxing, and progressive strength training exercise is as effective. It is more important to select an activity that will address your specific needs and be sustainable. *** But most neurologists are still skeptical about physical therapies. The one exception is the Dutch neurologist Bastiaan Bloem. Bloem believed physical therapy would be a better treatment of gait and balance than just the levodopa therapy. In 2004, Bloem and Marten Munneke, a physical therapist, started the ParkinsonNet in the Netherlands. Today, the program has 66 regional networks, 2,970 trained professionals and over fifty thousand patients. *** Over the past decade, several companies have been developing technology capable of tracking the PD symptoms outside the clinic. These companies are working on various combinations of advanced wearable sensors to track multiple domains round the clock tremor, bradykinesia, gait, balance, walking, cognition, and more. One technology, Kinesia HomeView, designed by Great Lakes Neuroechnologies, comprises a small computer and a finger sensor. Sitting in front of a screen, you perform a set of exercises, that takes about five minutes. Then you will get a report of thirteen metrics, listing the severity of three forms of tremor, dyskinesia, the speed, amplitude, and rhythm displayed during the finger-tapping, hand-movement, and hand-flipping exercises. The main advantage is that you can use it 24/7. It can reveal any changes in motor performance over time, providing a much more detailed picture of your disease than that obtained in an evaluation every six months. The other system is a set of sensors developed by Portland-based APDM. You wear three small devices, one on your wrist and one on each of your ankles. The wrist sensor detects tremor and dyskinesia. The ankle sensors measure multiple aspects of walking. Your daily activities generate masses of data. When the data are averaged over time, they reveal emerging asymmetries in your gait. Key Takeaways Dr. Jay Alberts discovered force-exercise can relieve PD symptoms. Force-exercise is like levodopa, the benefit will stop if you stop taking it. Bastiaan Bloem believed physical therapy would be a better treatment of gait and balance than just the levodopa therapy. Several companies have been developing technology capable of tracking the PD symptoms outside the clinic.

Human Cloning Essay -- Science Biology Genetics Genes Essays

Human Cloning Ever since the cloning of the first mammal, the sheep Dolly, in 1996 by Ian Wilmut of the Roslin Institute, people have been begun to consider how they feel about human cloning. Is it possible? Should we do it? The overwhelming answer seems to be "yes" to the first question, and "no" to the second. "Yes," because cloning a human is not much different from cloning a sheep. The cloning procedure is actually so surprisingly non-technical that laboratories could easily begin conducting their own research on human embryos today. In fact, one physicist who researched fertility sciences in the 1980's, Dr. Richard Seed, says he can already do it, and is setting up a clinic. His clinic probably won't succeed, however, because the U.S. Food and Drug Administration would have to approve such a clinic before it could operate, and they probably won't (World Book 13). If he did set up a clinic, the result would most likely turn out the same as a similar event in 1993, when researchers used well-known techniques to begin artificially twinning humans. They immediately became "embroiled in a firestorm of public scrutiny," and they were "criticized by other researchers in the field for jumping ahead without scrutinizing the ethical ramifications" (Bohlin 4). Clearly, although we have this technology right at our fingertips, the general community doesn't feel right about using it. In a CNN poll taken of 1,005 American adults in 1997, 89% feel that cloning humans is morally unacceptable, 69% are afraid of the possibility of cloning humans, and 74% believe that human cloning is against God's will (Robinson 8). More recently, the Vatican condemned human cloning as being "perverse" (Been 1). The scientists who cloned Doll... ...es, but only if we take the dangers seriously. Works Cited Bailey, Ronald. The Twin Paradox. Reason Online. May 1997. Beddington, Rosa. Cloning. 1997. Been, Jennie. Can we and should we clone humans? Bohlin, Dr. Ray. Can Humans Be Cloned Like Sheep? 1997. Deltapoint, Inc. Human Cloning and Re-Engineering. 1996 Green, Ronald M. I, Clone. Scientific American. September 1999. Hawley, Aaron. Cloning. March 2, 1998. Kilner, Dr. John F. Cloning Around. Life Advocate. July/August 1997. National Bioethics Advisory Commission. Executive Summary - Cloning Human Beings. June 1997. Ramey, Cathy. Cloning: A Theological View. Life Advocate. July/August 1997. Robinson, Bruce A. Ethical Aspects of Human Cloning. January 15, 2000. Slouching Towards Creation. Time. World Book v 1.4 Cloning: Are Humans Next? 1999.

The Characters Gilgamesh and Enkidu in the Epic of Gilgamesh :: Epic Gilgamesh essays

The Characters Gilgamesh and Enkidu in the Epic of Gilgamesh "Aruru molded out of clay in the image and 'of the essence of Anu', the sky god, and of Ninurta the war god named Enkidu" (pantheon.org/articles/e/enkidu.html). "His whole body was shaggy with hair, he was furnished with tresses like a woman, his locks of hair grew like grain. Enkidu was the bull-man (a human with horns, tail, and rear hooves of a bull). In the Akkadian Gilgamesh Epic, Enkidu is said to have lived with gazelles and jostled other wild beasts at the watering place, until civilized by Aruru's harlot. After being with the harlot for six days and seven nights Enkidu wanted to return to the wild beast, but they fled from him. "You have become wise Enkidu, you have become like a god" (piney.com/Enki.html). "Enkidu is gradually introduced to civilization by living for a time with a group of shepherds, who teach him how to tend flocks, how to eat, how to speak properly, and how to wear clothes. Enkidu then enters the city of Uruk during a great celebration. Gilgamesh, as the king, claims the right to be the first with every new bride on the day of her wedding; as Enkidu enters the city, Gilgamesh is about to claim that right. Infuriated at this abuse, Enkidu stands in front of the door of the marital chamber and blocks Gilgamesh's way. They fight furiously until Gilgamesh wins the upper hand; Enkidu concedes Gilgamesh's superiority and the two embrace and become devoted friends" (myfortress.org/EpicofGilgamesh.html). "Enkidu was the companion of Gilgamesh, and a wild or natural man" (pantheon.org/articles/e/enkidu.html). "Because Gilgamesh was too energetic for the people of Uruk, the gods decide to create a partner for him. Later he was considered a patron or god of animals" (piney.com/Enki.html). "Gilgamesh proposes a great adventure: they are to journey to the great Cedar Forest in southern Iran and cut down all the cedar trees" (wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/GILG.HTM). "To do this, they will need to kill the Guardian of the Cedar Forest, the great demon, Humbaba the Terrible. Enkidu was extremely terrified they were headed to the dark forest to hunt Humbaba" (gilgamesh-solutions.com/epic.cfm). "Unlike Gilgamesh, Enkidu had seen this brutal monster before, he warned Gilgamesh, "Oh my lord you do not know this monster and that is the reason you are not afraid. His teeth are dragon fangs, his countence is like a lion, his charge is like a flood, and with a look he crushes alike the trees of the forest and the reeds of the swamp.

Islam :: essays research papers fc

It may seem similar and it may not, but what we do know, is that they both believe that they are Muslims. The Islamic beliefs of the black American male and the males of the Middle East are the same. My argument lies in the question of whether or not Africans can call themselves true Muslims, believers and followers of the Islamic faith. To be considered a true Muslim you must follow the rules and regulations of the Islamic faith. What is Islam? Islam is defined as "the complete acceptance of and obedience to the teachings of Allah " (I. A. Ibrahim 45) As a Muslim you are to believe in Allah, who is incomparable. He has no son nor does he have a partner, he is unique and he is one. You shall not worship, magnify, or pay tribute to any other, for all others are false. Yet we see otherwise in Africans who call themselves Muslims. In John S. Mbiti's book, "Introduction to African Religion" he states traditional African beliefs mixes those of Islam to suit the require ments of the people concerned so they get the best out of both religions (188-189). How can one say such a thing? To believe in something is to fight for it, is to die for it. You can not get the best of a religion if you do not fully believe in it. You should not "adopt the way of dress and some other cultural forms" (Mbiti 189), just to suite a community. Religion is something that is held dear to the heart of many people and to mix and mingle them does not allow you to truly believe in one. When you convert to a religion it is not to convert halfway, it is not to convert three- fourths of the way, but to convert all the way. It is stated that even if Africans "convert to another religion, they do not completely abandon the traditional religions" (Mbiti 14) Here we see that the first real defiance has already occur. By mixing the two would not you be doing an injustice to the true believers of the Islamic faith and defying Allah the leader of the Islamic faith. in addition, are you not doing an injustice to the rites and rituals to the Gods, Spirits, and Divinities of the African religion? How can you please the leader/leaders of these separate religions if you are not even following them fully with your heart, mind, body and soul?

Mass Customization Strategy in Global Supply

Master of International Business Administration 12 Mass Customization International Supply Chain Management Yuliya Samokhina, Olga Baranova, Yuliya Pronkina, Alexander Manzhosov Content The basic concepts of mass customization. Principles and goals. (by Yulia Samokhina) Introduction3 Mass Customization: main definitions3 Evolution of mass customization†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 4 Mass customization strategies: advantages and disadvantages†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 4 Mass customization as a process†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦6 Conclusion8 Postponement strategies (by Olga Baranova) What is postponement? Postponement typology based on value chain activity9 Benefits of using postponement strat egy13 Critical success factors and ideal candidate for postponement strategy14 Modular concepts (by Yulia Pronkina) Definition of modules in the framework of global supply chain management15 Types of modularity18 Benefits and drawbacks of modularity. Requirements for implication of the concept modularity19 Modularization in automotive industry (Volkswagen’s modular strategy) 21 Shared platform strategies (by Alexander Manzhosov) Introduction23 Platform concept 24 The reasons of implementing platforms25Advantages and disadvantages of implementing shared platform strategies26 Shared platform strategies 28 Volkswagen Group. MQB strategy 29 Conclusion29 References The basic concepts of mass customization. Principles and goals. By Yuliya Samokhina Introduction Today, people live in the world with developing technologies, where everyone wants to be distinguished. Companies compete with other similar firms, because they want to attract customers as much as possible. Mass customizati on can satisfy customers’ demand to help them buy products with necessary characteristics.Previously, mass production systems can’t be sufficient for manufacturer and consumers. However, mass customization decided this problem to create comfortable conditions for all to provide individual product. For example, nowadays retailers don’t want to have more collections per season, but they want to possess more styles within the season. Companies produce new lines of clothes to their shops every four to six weeks. H&M and Zara have increased production to use computer technology.  «Zara uses data from its 426 stores to spot new trends, and offers 10,000 new products a year.TopShop sells as many as 30 pairs of knickers a minute, 6,000 pairs of jeans a day and 35,000 pairs of shoes every week ». Why it occurs? The answer is very simple: supply chain in mass customization business model has to be flexible and responsive to consumer demand. Main issues will be conside red in the essay below. Mass Customization: main definitions Usually, mass customization requires very advanced and flexible network, because the original purpose of mass customization is adapting one-to-one. Now, everyone can make products by themselves.Here, I want to give more successful definitions of Mass Customization:  «Mass customization is not a pure but a hybrid manufacturing concept, which joins the efficiency of operations and differentiation by providing highly value added products ».  «Mass customization refers to a customer co-design process of products and services, which meet the needs of each individual customer with regard to certain product features. All operations are performed within a fixed solution space, characterized by stable but still flexible and responsive processes. As a result, the costs associated with customization allow for a rice level that does not imply a switch in an upper market segment ». (Piller 2005c, p. 315; emphasis in original). Thus, now each buyer can acquire any goods, but the price for it will be higher. Commonly, it isn’t problem, because each person wants to be allocated from crowd. For instance, if two girls come in school-leaving party in one dress, it will be catastrophe for them. Fortunately, our generation has got a lot of articles with topic mass customization, and then we can consider mass customization from different foreshortenings. Evolution of mass customizationFirst, I think it is necessary to briefly describe the development of mass production to mass customization. Mass customization has been one of the causes of the economic growth in the 21st century. Below, you can see figure, which shows evolution of mass customization: Fig 1: Evolution of mass customization1 The first time our civilization has faced with mass customization in pre-industrialization era. In spite of this fact, today we also have started to develop it. Of course, these times are very different, because today peo ple use modern technologies.Between these periods we can observe mass production, which come in vogue with fundamental benefit of economy of scale and it was peak in mid century. For example, it was time of Soviet Union, and then companies produced a lot of similar clothes, shoes and etc. In late twentieth century, mass customization was back. Manufacturers offer different variation of products and customization is possible. Methods of application will examine in the next section. Mass customization strategies: advantages and disadvantages It is very important to understand how the mass customization works in practice.Generally, scientists mark out four strategies: transparent, cosmetic, adaptive and collaborative. A few words about each strategy: * Cosmetic strategy: companies produce a standard product but present it differently to different customers. Thereby customers satisfied with the product, and if they want, they can change packaging, for instance, the color, accessories, a nd other customer personalities. * Transparent strategy: this strategy is used by companies, which have specially knowledge of desires and preferences of customers. For transparent strategy is actual E-business.For example, service in website can analyses purchases, then it can recommend something based on previous purchases. * Adaptive strategy: producers try to modify standard product for the needs of customers. Thus, companies try to plan and represent of almost all possible combinations of product modules, like Microsoft. Then somebody buy software, he/she can add necessary functions. * Collaborative strategy: in this case companies don’t know what customers eventually want. Companies have to understand needs of customers and help to determine with necessary product, as in result to create its.It is very often, then strategy depends on industry there company worked. For example, companies which produce food and beverages use cosmetic and transparent strategies. In my opin ion, manufacturers have to estimate their possibilities; if they want have mighty profit. Why are companies interested in mass customization? The answer to this question is presented in the benefits of the above strategies: * Maximized market share by maximizing customers’ satisfaction and number of customers. * Cut cost of inventory and material waste: production has to work as a just in time.Companies should avoid large inventories of finished goods. * Increase cash flow: lower inventories, prepayment (thus lower receivables) increase cash flow. * Shorten time of responsiveness (accumulative time from receiving orders to delivering): organization structure and flexible manufacturing in mass customization allows the company to adapt to different demands rapidly. * Ability to supply a full line of products or service with lower costs: the purpose of mass customization is to differentiate products to particular demands, resulting in broader product lines of the company and a m uch lower risk of obsolete inventory.It is obvious, that companies can’t have only positive sides. It is important to understand, which problems may arise: 1. In mass customization costs are usually greater than in mass production. In some cases the product may not be different from standard product, but the price will be higher. Buyers will be unhappy, thus mass customization is inefficient. 2. Increasing of information in the production of individual goods could lead to costs. In this case the probability of production of defective goods rises. 3. Requirements for employees should be higher. Educated employees have to offer the optimal variant responding to the ustomer’s needs, otherwise, company can lose the loyalty of customers. 4. The production process can have difficulties with flexibility. Mass customization as a process I think that it is very important to know how the customization process can be divided into many sub-processes including the main stages of th e value chain. Moreover, it can help us to understand mass customization in details. First, I want to enumerate all sub-processes and explain at greater length. * The development sub-process; * The interaction sub-process; * The purchasing sub-process; * The production sub-process; * The logistics sub-process; The information sub-process. 1. The development sub-process. The product always should develop, if company wants that the mass customization will be successful. Requirements of buyers will be satisfied and costs of production will be reduced. The modularity is quite effective decision as it allows achieving the economy of scale and economy of scope. On the other hand, the modularity can be simple for imitation by competitors and development is more expensive. Other strategy, such as a commonality and platform strategies help to work to the companies to increase reusability in mass customization.Thus, product development in the mass customization is carried out through design e ngineers. Very high effect is reached, when the client participates in development of products himself. Companies should use customers’ innovative abilities. 2. The interaction sub-process. This process is also elicitation process. Thus, customer has to find the product that exactly fulfills his requirements. Company has to understand that everyone wants. Usually, to identify four types of elicitation process: identification (e. g. name and address), customers’ selections from menus of alternatives, physical measurements and reactions to prototypes.Usually, customers buy products in the Internet (in different Internet-shops) or go to the retail center and also buy necessary thing. Today, it is very quickly and easily to use Internet. For example, Adidas offers to buy sneakers in their web-site, there everyone can create own style. The interaction process is associated with electronic features. Another important thing that in mass customization consumers are actively in volved in production process. It is normal then customers are often called  «coproducers » or  «prosumers ». 3. The purchasing sub-process. Suppliers in mass customization are the very important part in reducing costs.Companies with good suppliers have got really competitive advantage. It is fact that the achievement of high profits lies in an effective and efficient component and material purchasing. Outsourcing strategies have been formed due to the modular architectures. The modular sourcing applies to reduce difficulty in purchasing process. In this case, companies have to trust each other and closely cooperate, if they want to achieve incredible results. 4. The production sub-process. Companies should focus on the economic order quantity (EOQ). Thus, the processes of production in mass customization should be minimized.The optimization of the production is the main task in the process. If a company wants to meet all the needs of customers, the production must be flexibl e. Companies need to understand then they want to make individual product, I mean, at what stage. Producers have got two important key terms: delayed product differentiation and postponement. They are two related concepts, whereby the means placing the decoupling point at later stages in the production processes. Another one describes that some production activities are not initiated until customer order arrives. 5.The logistics sub-process. This process includes work with clients and suppliers, plus accompanying. Usually, it call terms upstream and downstream. Upstream logistic is transportation, warehousing of materials and components for production and consolidation. The downstream logistics is the packaging and shipment of end products to customers. Unfortunately, these types of logistics face serious problems in mass customization, because costs of individualization increase. The all logistic has very heavy costs. Companies spend a lot of money for transportation and warehousin g equipment.It is a reason why these companies use outsourcing. Mass customization doesn’t have inventories of end product. The companies try to work individually with each person. Nobody wants to resemble another. 6. Information sub-process. This process cooperates with all processes described above. The purpose of the information sub-process is the providing of information stream. The effective information system should capture following stages: customers needs, develop a list of product requirements, determine manufacturing specifications with respect to routing, material processing, assembly and etc.Radio Frequency Identification can help to make identification. In spite of the fact that modern technologies are very useful, it remains very expensive. Another useful method for the coordination in mass customization is Vendor Managed Inventory (VMI). Any supplier has got timely information about stock levels of modules and components. In addition, the integration of ERP (En terprise Resource Planning) helps to improve the agility and adaptability to unforeseen events. The mass customization will make profit if the software is constantly developed and updated.Finally, companies should work with a large number of data very accurately. I try to consider mass customization not only as one whole process, but separate sub-processes. It helps to understand the nature of mass customization. However, I should mention interrelated strategies such as postponement and modularization, because usually these strategies allow the companies to work successfully. In my essay I will give short concepts of strategy as below in this work other students will describe them in details. Modularization is necessary for the success of mass customization where set-up costs are critical.Also, modularization allows making rapid assembly and costing efficiency. Modularization usually uses in this field such as computer science, construction, design engineering and production. The ma in idea in modularization is the breaking down of the product into standardized components or group of components, which is called modules. The second strategy is postponement:  «Postponement means delaying activities in the supply chain until customer orders are received with the intention of customizing products, as opposed to performing those activities in anticipation of future orders ». These strategies are quite often used.Every year, the mass customization will be more popular in the companies. Conclusion of this part In this essay, I consider the most important aspects of mass customization. First, it was given the basic concepts of mass customization. I tried to examine the most important definitions and to explain the essence of mass customization. After that, I described a little history from mass production to mass customization. History has shown that the mass customization has already been applied to date. Now companies are using modern technology, so the result of up-to-date mass customization is different.Companies produce products more quickly than ever before. Information technology is used in all stages of production, which helps companies to satisfy consumer preferences. Also, I examined mass customization not only as a single process, but also to separate the process in parts, included development, interaction, purchasing, production, logistic and information sub-processes. Each sub-process has to be adjusted in order to avoid stagnation in the production and filing warehouses. In the essay, I also mentioned the main advantages and frequently used strategies.The company chooses the strategy which it thinks it is the most appropriate strategy. Usually, the strategy depends on the industry in which the company operates. In my opinion, the mass customization is developing and is very useful for manufacturers and consumers. First, customers are satisfied with goods with necessary characteristics. Second, company in the event of mass custom ization has lower costs compared to if it was made for each customer a totally unique product. Finally, I want to emphasize that the mass customization has both advantages and disadvantages. The company has to make a choice itself.Postponement strategies By Olga Baranova What is postponement? Effective management of a supply chain includes thinking creatively about how to integrate and perform logistics and manufacturing activities. Postponement strategy offer opportunities to achieve delivery of products in a timely and cost-effective manner by rearranging the conventional production and logistics structures, which are often designed and managed autonomously. Thus, postponement, also known as â€Å"delayed differentiation,† is a supply chain strategy that delays product differentiation at a point closer to the customer.This involves designing and developing standard or generic configurable products that can be customized quickly and inexpensively once actual consumer demand is known. Postponement also entails the implementation of specific inventory strategies to deploy inventory farther away from the customer while fulfilling service level objectives and reducing inventory costs and minimizing risk, strategies for holding the right inventory, at the right place, in the right form. By pushing the point of product differentiation closer to the customer, postponement can improve customer service levels, reduce inventory costs, and increase top-line revenue.The postponement strategy is based on the following two basic principles of demand forecasting: 1. The  accuracy of the forecast  demand decreases with an increase in the time horizon. The farther the time window for which the demand is being forecasted, the more inaccurate it will be. The figure graphically represents this effect as a funnel: as time extends farther into the future, the forecast error grows, showing that the forecast demand will have larger and larger variations as time periods pr ogress into the future. 2.Demand projections for a product group are generally more accurate than projections for individual products. It is much easier to forecast the total demand for LCD TVs than it is for an individual TV of a specific brand, model, screen size, resolution, and color contrast ratio. Postponement typology based on value chain activity It is based on the review of 15 studies; Table 1 was developed to summarize the terminologies used to define different postponement types. These define postponement on the basis of activities or place to differentiate between different postponement types.The check marks in front of every study indicate the postponement terminology used for that study. The following section (table 1) summarizes these terminologies under product development, purchasing, manufacturing and logistics postponement. Table 1 Summary of postponement terminologies based on the review of studies Product Development Postponement Strategy Product development pos tponement is considered extreme form of customization with all activities including product design taking place after the placement of an order.Moreover in this case, the customers are also involved during the design stage. Product development postponement strategy is preferred in highly volatile environments, involving high levels of uncertainty in terms of consumer demands, technological developments and government regulations. 2 For instance Toyota deals with the high levels of uncertainty by letting their suppliers come up with novel ideas and designs without limiting them with strict specification constraints. The suppliers have total independence to explore different areas within a broad range of design specs.During that time, people at Toyota continue gathering market data on consumer demands and technological trends, till some convergence is achieved. 3 Purchasing Postponement Strategy In the case of purchasing postponement strategy, the purchasing of raw materials is postpo ned until the information on downstream demand becomes available. Purchasing postponement strategy is preferred when the demand is highly uncertain, raw material has high obsolescence cost and is of high value in terms of total product cost or ties up huge amount of working capital.Purchasing postponement would work when the market lead time is greater than the manufacturer’s production lead time plus the suppliers lead time. 3 However, if the market lead time constraints the manufacturer from applying purchasing postponement, it can be adopted selectively for a range of products. This would be possible if the company is able to differentiate between base demand and surge demand. For base demand it can proceed with forecasted demand and purchase raw material or even proceed with production in case of longer production lead times. However for surge emand, the company can wait till demand pattern becomes available and then it can proceed to place orders. In order to manage supp lies for the surge demand, the manufacturers can have separate design of supply chain to deal with the surge demand, since under most scenarios regular production lead time for the surge demand would be greater than the market lead time. This design would be based on speed and agility with focus on fulfilling orders quickly rather than focusing lower cost by setting up fast production lines and purchasing raw materials from a different set of suppliers.However this would be feasible when the increase in cost due to fast paced production would be less than the gains accrued by adopting purchasing postponement strategy. This fact is highlighted by the postponement strategy adopted by Benetton, an apparel manufacturer, which separates between base demand and unpredictable demand. For the base demand, Benetton subcontracts to low cost sources, which have higher lead times, while for the unpredictable part, they utilize their own flexible facilities which have higher operating costs.Howe ver for purchasing postponement to work, it is imperative to have high level of collaboration between the manufacturers and the suppliers. Suppliers are required to respond to the downstream demand in minimum possible time so that the manufacturers can deliver within the market lead times, while resorting to purchasing postponement. In recent times e- market places have sprung up, enabling the manufacturers to get linked with the suppliers without any geographical constraints3. This increases the options of the manufacturers to respond to actual demand.However, having suppliers or their stock centers in close proximity to the manufacturers would support purchasing postponement strategy. Moreover this type of impulse buying contradicts the approach of developing long-term relationships with the suppliers and could also jeopardize the relationships with the existing suppliers. From a supply chain perspective, purchasing postponement involves shifting the ownership of the goods to the most suitable location. However in case of an imbalanced power structure, a manufacturer might force its suppliers to hold finished goods inventories in order to reduce its own risk and uncertainty cost.In this situation the suppliers are left with speculating the downstream demand, often resulting in the overall inventory buildup or ‘Bullwhip’ effect in the supply chain, which reduces the efficiency of the entire chain. 3 Manufacturing Postponement Strategy Manufacturing postponement is based on holding products at platform level later to be customized as per demand pattern. This is based on the principle that it is easier to forecast demand pattern at component level as compared to finished product stage3.It involves delaying manufacturing activities and holding inventory in neutral form till the demand pattern becomes visible. Thus this strategy works where there are multiple product derivatives, which could be due to different cultural, technological or market relat ed issues. High product variation makes it difficult to forecast and hold inventory at finished stage. Manufacturing postponement allows companies to operate without holding finished goods inventory while maintaining bulk of their inventories at pre-customized form.The inventory at this level has lower risk attached to it because their raw state permits them for wide usage variations. 4 For example, fashion apparel retail business is marked by high product obsolescence costs. This is because of the fact that product are planned long before the actual demand information becomes visible. Zara on the other hand has been able to capture market trends by reducing the time required to introduce new products. Among other steps, Zara uses manufacturing postponement to reduce its lead times.Zara concentrates its forecasting efforts on the kind 14  and amount of fabric it buys. Zara gains more speed and flexibility by purchasing more than 50% of its fabric un-dyed later to be used for vario us products and lines (platform based). It reduces the cost as well as the chances of forecast errors. In un-dyed form it is easier to convert fabric to other uses, while it gives Zara the flexibility to adapt to colors close to the selling season based on the immediate market needs. 5 Assembly postponement StrategyThe computer industry selling customizable product especially through the internet practice assembly postponement strategy. The customers select from various options such as color, memory specs, processors, and the companies such as Dell, HP and Compaq assemble the required models from components received from the Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs). HP postpones the final assembling step to the last stage at the local distribution centers and once demand becomes visible, final manufacturing/assembly activities such as power supply, packaging and labeling are carried out.Labeling postponement Strategy Labeling postponement is adopted when the products are marketed und er different brand names or are distributed to different markets. For example at times the same OEMs are used by different brands for their products and the OEMs mark the products with labels after receiving respective orders. Similarly certain apparel distribution companies keep products 16  unmarked and upon receipt of orders from various institutions print their logos before dispatching the orders. Packaging postponement StrategyPackaging postponement strategy is adopted when the products are marketed in different bundles or package sizes. 6 The final packaging is delayed till orders are confirmed. Packaging activities are generally performed in the downstream locations such as centralized distribution centers. Logistics postponement Strategy Logistics postponement involves a delay in the final movement of the goods. Instead of placing the goods at the final point in the supply chain, they are kept at a central location, with the aim of following the demand pattern for the fina l shipments. This helps to reduce the inventories in the supply chain 17 while at the same time improves customer responsiveness. 3 Maintaining inventories at final locations would increase the inventory costs while at the same time would result in stock outs at some locations and excess stock at other locations. Logistics postponement often involves the repositioning of the final manufacturing activities downstream closer to the end user. This helps particularly where local variations in terms of consumer preferences exist, which could be better, catered to by carrying out the final customization at the local distributer level.Logistics postponement suits those products, which have higher inventory cost and lower transportation costs. Logistics postponement in most of the cases requires a faster and more responsive transportation system and can result in higher transportation costs. Benefits of using postponement strategy Successful postponement implementations improve customer sat isfaction while minimizing inventory costs. By improving their ability to respond to changes in demand from local and global markets, companies are better able to compete on time while remaining cost competitive. Improvement in Customer Satisfaction: Increased ability to offer a wider range of customized goods * Reduced lead time for orders Reduction in Inventory Cost: * Inventory costs shift upstream to less expensive generic products, which also reduces inventory obsolescence costs * Enables better planning and allocation of resources by reducing the forecasting horizon * Reduces inventory costs by as much as 30% to 40% in successful implementations Improvement in Order Fill Rates: * Since finished products are manufactured from generic components, companies are better able to deliver finished goods on time as a result of postponement.Bottom-Line Benefits: * Overall, postponement’s primary benefits are to reduce the effects of market uncertainty and to meet customer needs, while effectively managing supply chain costs. In many cases, lower overall supply chain costs were achieved by respondents. Critical success factors and ideal candidate for postponement strategy The keys to a successful postponement strategy are to produce standardized products and to incorporate customization at the most advantageous point in the supply chain.Proceeding from the aforesaid it is possible to allocate the following factors: * Organizational buy-in and support is the primary critical success factor * Implementation of appropriate inventory deployment strategy * A postponement strategy is destined for failure without consistent top-down support from design through implementation * Product design modularity and business process reengineering are critical to ensure smooth execution * Collaboration among all internal functions of the supply chain, as well as with suppliers and customers * Proper metrics and incentives are also importantResolving the competing interests wi thin a company’s supply chain is also essential. Without collaboration, including changes in the rewards and metrics structures of a supply chain, the changes associated with postponement often result in poor execution. In addition, external collaboration with suppliers and consumers is critical. If suppliers cannot respond to the changes as a result of postponement, and if product design is not tailored to customer requirements, postponement can result in cost overruns and increased lead times.The foundation of every successful postponement implementation is organizational buy-in. If management is not willing to take risks, implement significant changes, and monitor adjusted metrics, they will be less likely to reap the benefits of postponement. While many industries and companies are prime for postponement, there are certain business conditions that position a company for a more successful postponement implementation. Prominent among these are companies that produce a signi ficant variety of products with short product life cycles and which have a supply chain able to support mass customization.Regardless of business conditions, effective postponement implementation still requires collaboration, organizational buy-in, concerted effort, and the right information technology backbone. Modular Concepts in the Framework of International Supply Chain Management By Yuliya Pronkina In recent years, the competitive dynamics in general and the demand for product customization in particular have increased considerably in virtually all industry sectors: partly as a result of new low-budget competitors in the global markets and partly by increasing demand for technological performance.The ability to react quickly to unexpected market changes is one of the decisive reasons for the development of modular product architectures. If a company wants to remain competitive or expand its market share, it is posed to manage the compromise between such conflicting goals as: * low costs; * short lead times; * high quality of product. Modular strategy is intended to resolve this conflict and be able to become a solution to growing complexity of customizable production. It closely links with modular platform systems.In fact, modularity enables manufacturer to combine advantages of mass production (high volume, large quantity production) and product variety (flexible and versatile manufacturing systems, product tailoring, etc. ) at reduced cost and increased economies of scale. All in all product development strategies such as modularity, product modular platform, etc are the key to achieving low cost customization The modular concept has played significant role in the development of mass customization. This article examines main aspects of modular concept in the framework of global supply chain management.Definition of modules in the framework of global supply chain management To understand what modular strategy represents we tried to give the definitions of â€Å"modules† and find its real position among other strategies of mass customization. According to the Oxford Dictionary, definition of modules in general is following: Module is each of a set of standardized parts or independent units that can be used to construct a more complex structure, such as an item of furniture or a building. There are convenient statements among authors of studies about general meaning of modularity.According to them we can conclude that modularity refers to an approach to organize complex products and processes efficiently by decomposing complex tasks into smaller parts. It allows the tasks to be managed independently and yet work together as a whole without compromising performance. Thus we can consider modularity as the ability to configure product variants by mixing and matching components within similar product architecture to create variety of configuration without losing its functionality. Examples of modules would include many components in automobiles: engines, transmissions, audio equipment, tire/wheel options, etc.In electronics, modules would include processor boards, power supplies, plug-in integrated circuits, and disk drives. In software, code could be written in modules (objects) that can be combined into various combinations. In fabrication modular strategy is applied as flexible platforms for creation a significant number of product variations, enabling a firm to gain cost savings through economies of scale from component commonality, inventory, logistics, as well as to introduce technologically improved products more rapidly.Modular architectures allow firms to minimize the physical changes required to achieve some functional changes. Hence all the physical changes can be easily combined without adding complexity to the manufacturing system and, hence, to managerial system. To explore the concept of modularity and consider it in the framework of supply chain management, we decided to compare the differen ces between integral and modular product architecture and make further comparisons between corresponding supply chain architecture.Product architecture. Integral product architectures are those in which each component is provided directly and specifically to overall performance. Parts and interfaces tend to be proprietary. On a highly integrated product like a military aircraft, every part and system has been designed to perform a specific task. Modular product architectures use standard interfaces and can employ off-the-shelf components for much of assembly. Personal computers, clothing, and many other products employ modular architectures12.Supply Chain Architecture. Integral (traditional) supply chains require vertical integration within a primary firm or tight coupling of several firms in order to meet demanding, proprietary design specifications. Modular supply chain architectures are horizontal, with many competing firms specializing in aspects of the overall product. In other words, modularity in supply chains implies that the various units of organizations are freely divided, can operate independently, may be easily reconstructed.The concepts of product modularity and supply chain modularity are rather interconnected: changes in the product architecture result in important implications for the supply chain structure and re-distribution of activities across the logistics networks. This figure 2 shows us the simple scheme of interconnections of final assembler and its suppliers in traditional supply chain and modular supply chain. (2) (1) Figure 2. Simplified scheme of integral supply chain (1) and modular supply hain (2) In modular supply chain first tier suppliers are providing modules in the form of subassemblies, are not only components, therefore a modular supply chain is characterized by the presence of value-adding tier-suppliers that coordinate the work of the second tier suppliers. In non modular supply chain the role of assemblier is played onl y by a local firm. In the result of rather different approach, modular supply chain fosters some distinctions comparing to the traditional one. In the following table we compare the main features of supply chain depending on its mode of organization. Table 2Main features of supply chain depending on its mode of organization11 | Traditional supply chain| Mass customization supply chain| Interface compatibility effects| * Integrated vertical structure * Long development lead times| * Modular product architecture * Reduction of development lead time| Component customization| * Design and manufacturing focus * In-house product development * Standardized components| * Autonomous innovation in NPD * Customer focus * Design for manufacturability| Value inputs| * Economies of scale * Exploiting advantages of market mechanism * Standardization of operations * Consolidation of outbound logistics| * Outsourcing * Flexibility towards specific customers’ needs * Economies of scale and sco pe| Supplier-buyer interdependence| * Supplier involvement in development not critical * Multiple sourcing| * Early supplier involvement in NPD * Strategic partnership * Supplier as system integrator * High interdependence| The good example of applying modular strategy in practice is the following.Two German automotive companies, Volkswagen and Mercedes-Benz decided to develop the auto industry's modularization in the mid-1990s. Their built new plants, which started production in 1996 and 1997 according to the new modular concept on a relatively large scale, specifically at Volkswagen’s plants in Resende (Brazil), Boleslav (Czech), and Mosel (former East Germany), and Mercedes-Benz's plants in Vance (U. S. ) and Hambach (France). These plants had two main features. One is that they have assembled cars from relatively large subassemblies. As we can know a car is a system made up of numerous components. At conventional plants, individual components —— for example, instrument panels, gauges, and wire harnesses —— one by one to a vehicle body on the final assembly line.Instead, at those new plants, these individual components are subassembled on a separate line, and then installed as a module into a body on the final assembly line14. Suppliers procure their own materials and labor force to create separate modules, while Volkswagen provides the infrastructure and designs the interface between manufacturing units. These measures let companies reduce their costs, because on its new plants there were no need in â€Å"blue collars† (administrative staff), for instance, and its modular outsourcing made significant advantages which are resulted in an ability to issue a wider variety of final products in shorter time periods and at lower cost. Types of modularityThere are six types of modularity for the mass customization of products and services: * component-sharing modularity, * component-swapping modularity; * cut-to-fit modula rity; * mix modularity; * bus modularity; * sectional modularity. The following characteristics of different types of modularity are done by contemporary authors who are mostly referring to Ulrich and Tung study â€Å"Fundamentals of Product Modularity† (1991). We supposed it is convenient typology and decided to base further information on this ground (figure 3). In component-sharing modularity, the same component is used transversely in different products to provide economies of scope.There is a base unit of common components and changeable part. This kind of modularity never results in true individual customization, but allows reducing costs and increasing variety of products. Figure 3. Types of modularity In component-swapping modularity it is possible to change options on a standard product. Modules are selected from a list of options to can be added to a base product, for example cars. The good example for this is the â€Å"Configurator† on the internet site of V olkswagen, where customers can choose additional features which can be added to the base model with several clicks. So customer can make a decision which is convenient for him.Cut-to-fit modularity is similar to component-sharing and component-swapping modularity, except that one or more of the components is variable. The module can be changed before it is combined with other modules. The good examples for it are eyeglasses, or clothing. Mix-modularity is also similar to component-sharing and component-swapping modularity, but is distinguished by the fact that when combined, the modules lose their unique identity. An example is house paint. When particular colors of paint are mixed together, those components are no longer visible in the end product16. Bus modularity uses a main platform that can add different components to it.So in the result there is the infrastructure that is really required for each consumer. Sectional modularity is the type of modularity that provides the bigges t variety and customization among other types of modularization. Functionally it is rather close to component swapping, but focuses on arranging standard modules in a new, unique form16. In this case each component is connected to another making achievable the configuration of any number of different types of components. The most popular example is Lego. To be able to use this type of modularity a manufacturer has to develop a special interface of its product that allows sections or objects of different types to interlock16.Benefits and drawbacks of modularity, requirements for implementing of the concept Taking all into consideration we can list main benefits of modular strategy: * Economies of scale and scope which mean an ability to improve overall performance of production concentrating on divided modules. Suppliers and sub-suppliers have an opportunity to produce higher volume of its â€Å"modules† and apply its core-competencies to production. * Increased possibility of product/component change and updating. Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, as so as it is wider open for further product development. * Reduced order lead-time.Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced. * Development of product variety. The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules. * Separated tasks. Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This dividing can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel. For instance it is easier to test it before final assembly, quality management can become more efficient due to separated modules. The ease of product upgrade, maintenance , repair, and disposal. Customer without any problem can change one module to another, for example he can buy an improved video card for his computer, or change an engine module in his automobile17. Although applying modular design provides a number of advantages across the organization, companies must also consider the less discussed drawbacks when evaluating the decision to implement modular design or reviewing existing modular processes. * High Initial Investment. The initial costs to reconfigure existing systems and processes are high. Reconfiguring to the modular design is a complex task, which may disrupt the existing flow of the product pipeline. Lack of Customer-Centricity. Focusing on cost-efficiencies company can lose clear vision of customer needs. * Coordination Complexity. Modular design requires a significant restructuring of processes and can increase product development complexity if companies do not assign clear ownership and collaboration with suppliers in a well-p lanned implementation process to avoid duplication of processes and inconsistency across product specifications, purchase orders, and manufacturing plans. * Supplier Risk . Companies can experience delays, incorrect specifications, and poor material quality. Hence there is a necessity of well-organized control in this case.Also, companies may have to share information and technical expertise to ensure suppliers deliver according to new specifications and cost. A company surrendering too much technical expertise, especially in areas that provide a competitive advantage, may lose technical control to the supplier * Intellectual Property Risk. Producing modules simplifies the product architecture, enabling competitors to recognize without difficulty technologies and copy modules. According to that, organizations must increase patent documentation to prevent competitors using key modules in their product architectures. In modular supply chain management, suppliers have a relatively high degree of freedom in production.However it is possible only with long-term commitments and aggressive cost goals. It is clear, that modular strategy has its basic requirements for the suppliers and manufacturers which enable them work together to create value. To implement modular strategy company should be able to meet such requirements, as following: * Particular organization structure. The organization structure should be flatter with fewer levels, and creates a freedom for the coordination among processes (modules). It focuses on a high degree of cross-functional integration and employee participation. This results in a much higher degree of decentralization in decision making.Besides, the structure is open to suppliers as well as customers because they (suppliers and customers) are considered extensions of the organization; * Management focuses on three parts: supplier relation, customer relation, and resource management; * Readiness of inputs when needed (this requires an eff ective supply network), skillful, highly educated employees with excellent technical qualifications; * High standardization of components. Also adjusting a company’s organizational structure with a modular product architecture requires the constant support and enduring responsibility of the top management. The level of quality control and coordination in development of modules should be in a high level.Effective development and efficient use of modules requires changes in the existing processes in many ways. Modularization in automotive industry (Volkswagen’s modular strategy) As usual, the automotive industry is a leader in implementing and communicating a modularization strategy. The Volkswagen Group is characterized by its global presence and comprises numerous brands. The Volkswagen Group bases its great success on three major modules which are shared on a broad scale. The successfully implemented modularization strategy is one of the key factors which will enable the Volkswagen Group to become the world leading car manufacturer, not only in terms of sold units but also in terms of superior margins8.Now The VW Group is a large automotive empire encompassing 10 brands, 240 models produced across 94 sites in 153 markets, totaling over 8. 3 million vehicles made each year. The sheer scale of its operations across so many different countries meant that variability of its products is very high. Applying of modular strategy by Volkswagen meets customers’ expectations for a growing variety of vehicle models, equipment features and design. Through the modularization of the body, vehicles can be produced in different stages for the length, width and wheelbase – an approach that benefits the manufacturing process. We’ll discuss the main features of Volkswagen modular strategy created in its â€Å"Modular Transverse Toolkit (MQB)† in the next chapter.To sum up, companies that are striving to be competitive and still want to h ave a relatively high profit margins and market shares in our case can choose mass customization strategies and modular strategies in particular because: * Modularity makes complexity manageable * Modularity enables parallel work; * Modularity is tolerant of uncertainty. Shared platform strategies in the framework of international supply chain management. By Alexander Manzhosov Abstract The logical order of development of international markets, industries and customers behavior led businesses to a new frontier of competition for manufacturing industries as well as for service industries – to Mass Customization.The core reason for such a change in the market concept was a dramatically increase in diversity of consumers needs within market segments. And as the world recognized guru of management Peter Drucker once said:  «It’s a customer who determines what a business is. It’s the customer alone who’s willingness to pay for a good or for a service convert s economic resources into wealth, things into goods.  » Translated to the real terms that meant for the manufacturers a new challenge of meeting various customers needs while carrying on following to basic trends of reducing costs and development times of a product and optimizing core business processes.That’s why platform strategies were designed and applied to increase the efficiency and profitability of manufacturing. This paper seeks to identify the phenomenon of shared platform strategies, research their advantages and disadvantages for supply chains and study the consequences of implementing the strategy on the case of Volkswagen Group. Key words: mass customization, shared platform strategies, supply chain. Introduction Many modern manufacturers are seeking new ways to improve their Key Performance Indicators (KPI) and concentrating their facilities on cost reducing while offering the collection of competitive goods in many different market segments. And one of the m ethods of achieving this goal is by implementing shared platforms approach.The benefit is possible to be gained because of coordinating of engineering processes with the actual production system and supply chains. The platform allows companies to share not only components, but also production tools and machinery. Thus our first effort to establish the basis of the concept of sharing platforms among the family of products is to define the term â€Å"platform†. After that there is a further problem of realization in which way does the concept affect the company and how the enterprise can get a competitive advantage by mean of implementing shared platform strategies. Platform concept The ideas of sharing platforms have received increasing attention in product development and operations management in the time when mass customization era arose.So companies had to â€Å"produce goods and services to meet individual customer's needs with near mass production efficiency†. The platform concept is closely tied to models of product architecture, modularization and standardization. The platform itself can be defined as â€Å"a relatively large set of product components that are physically connected as a stable subassembly and are common to different final models†. The definition has been stated above can be clarified by Figure 4. Figure 4. Three different products build on the same platform The figure illustrates the general idea of platforms sharing. Three different products are assembled by combining elements A, B, C, D, E.According to the illustration it can be concluded, that this product family consists of the element A (platform) and a set of other elements used in a modular way. What emerges from the definition and illustration that in general designing a platform is about creating common shared components and systems throughout a family line, while providing differentiated features and benefits to add value to each production unit (Figure 5). Figure 5. Common principle of sharing platforms . The trick here is that totally different at the first sight products from different brands and from different price segments of the market can be equal in engineering terms.Still the platform is not a universal cure. And based on empirical evidence there are some preconditions of implementing platforms: * The product family shares basic groups of elements * The product family is supposed to have a long lifecycle * The level of interconnected systems among the product family is relatively high * The technological environment of the market tends to constant updates * The core functionality of the products is stable but variable in the terms of non-core functions All these criteria are not ultimate and the suitability of decisions taken depends on specificity of organizations type and the product characteristics as well.It also should be added, that depending on criteria mentioned above and the target of the manufacturer, platforms can be categorized into 3 types: * Modular * Scalable * Generational The main difference by such a categorizing emerges owing to the strategy of launching the product line. The modular platform usually allows designing functionally different product variants. On the contrary, scalable one aims at creating functionally equal products of many capacities. And the last one, the generational platform is used to be a basis for new generation development. The reasons of implementing platforms It follows from what has been said above, that the platform concept is a quite flexible approach for manufacturers, moreover sometimes it seems vital for staying competitive on the market.And now we can pass on to the issues closely related to the platform implementation and it’s consequences for the companies operations and supply chain structure. Nowadays critical issues for consideration in the Supply Chain Management (SCM) are cost containment, development know-how and resources, product qualit y and logistics. As the supply chain can be represented as the combination of enterprises involved in activities from the supply of raw materials to the manufacturing and delivery of the goods to the customers, the success of the whole supply chain depends on how to generate the most efficient configuration of the products, manufacturing processes and supply sources. In this connection a question is bound to arise whether the shared platform approach is an effective method or not.This brings us to advantages and disadvantages of such a scheme. Advantages and disadvantages of implementing shared platform strategies The purpose with platform sharing is to reduce the cost and have a more efficient product development process. And according to the purpose announced from m point of view it’s possible to classify advantages of shared platform strategy into three key groups: * Quantitative * Qualitative * Customer-oriented Quantitative advantages by this mean include such factors as : 1. The Global standardization 2. The Economy of scale 3. The rationalization and the reduction of R&D costs The value of the standardizations is quiet obvious.By creating a common platform for the product line the company creates â€Å"flexibility†, which allows not only to produce dissimilar models according to individual customers’ and even countries’ tastes but also provides an opportunity to standardize production facilities and streamline logistics and management as well. The economy of scale in this case follows directly from the previous factor: the commonality of the exploiting components, modules, mechanisms, assembly lines reduce overall costs and simplifies the business and technological processes within the company sparing human and monetary resources. The next important issue concerns R&D costs. The unity of components under one single platform helps dramatically minimize the cost of developing product lines. Once the platform is designed, the com pany doesn’t need to spend millions on engineering new components.And platform efficiency – â€Å"the ratio between the average R&D costs (or development time) for derivative product over the cost (or time) spent for the platform† increases (the lower the ratio the more efficient the platform is). Such an effect is possible because different products share the same technology process, structure and production mechanisms. Qualitative advantages include: 1. Increased quality and innovations 2. Easer inventory management The proposed components’ commonality is a multi-oriented tool: platform sharing allows manufacturers to design parts with fewer variation. A byproduct of this is increased quality, which results in lower defect rates.On the other hand, people want value for their money they want new technologies. And eliminating the need to engineer separately thousands of parts allows research and development assets to be focused on fewer technologies foste ring innovation and quality improvements in the minor set of technologies. One more critical point is inventory management. It’s apparent that in any supply chain a tremendous amount of inventory is held in the form of components. And it’s essential to mention that the inventory amount corresponds always to the uncertainty of demand for the finished product. In that way by implementing a platform the manufacturer is able to use it in multiple finished products.So the demand for the platform and all components the platform consists of is an aggregation of the demand for all cross-platform finished products. That’s why â€Å" the use of common components (or set of components – platform) in a variety of products has been a very effective supply chain strategy to exploit aggregation and reduce component inventories†. Another clear benefit concerns the relations between suppliers and manufacturer. By implementing platforms the producer decreases the un certainty of demand on different components. That creates a win-to-win situation for both business partners by enabling them to build long-term relationships. The last group of advantages is customer oriented and includes: 1. Faster response to changing market needs 2. Greater product varietyIt’s critical to mention, that this group of pros can be clearly defined through observation on previous advantages. And faster response to changing market needs occurs because platform sharing allows manufacturers to design and launch new products faster and cheaper. And the trick is here that the development and cost of the original platform for new goods have already been paid for. Such flexibility provides an opportunity to the company to diversify its assortment and satisfy different market shares. However it’s impossible to complete the study without highlighting some possible problems when using platform approach: 1. Product dilution 2. Incompatibility 3. Risk concentrationP roduct dilution means that a platform, depending on the common machines and systems, can be extended thin if it becomes a source of too many disparate models. Moreover, platforms that span across models of different stature increase the risk of cheapening luxury products or adding unnecessary cost to lower-end segment. Another challenge is incompatibility. A platform’s differentiating technologies must be carefully engineered to integrate with the standardized systems. Otherwise, producers will have to perform modifications to make the two types of technologies compatible. These compatibility regulations first of all are not differentiating modifications and secondly they provide zero value of their own to the finished product. The last but not the least possible problem is the risk concentration.Producers may face greater overall risk if the underlying platform they’ve developed and implemented is accident-prone. A defect in a standardized technology multiplies the ri sk across the whole product line, which leads to expensive potential recalls. Shared platform strategies As has been indicated, in general implementing a platform promises much more benefits than negative consequences. And once the decision to implement platforms is considered, there are various strategies for the product implementation (Figure 6). Some of the most widely practiced platform strategies are No Leveraging, Vertical Leveraging, Horizontal Leveraging and the Beachhead Approach. Figure 6. Shared platform strategiesNo Leveraging platform is usually designed especially for a single market segment. Such strategy is implemented for high scale goods wi